Archaeological research on the Manabi Coast, the heartland of the Ancient Manteņo chiefdom, has been limited. A few surveys and excavations have taken place, however, and their analyses are beginning to fill out our understanding of the Manteņo. The Manteņo Expeditions are contributing to Manteņo archaeology by experimental means: documenting the production and use of a 20-ton traditional raft, using ancient navigation methods (rather than electronic). In the same way that archaeologists make and use replicas of stone tools to understand them, we are making and using replicas of Manteņo vesels to understand their capabilities and limitations. Specific questions regarding the use of these artifacts are being formulated and will be posted on a page outlining the precise research goals.

On this page I summarize the findings of several archaeological research programmes in the area, particularly the excavations carried out and reported by E. Currie (1995). It is important to remember that archaeology does not simply seek for and focus on artifacts, but seeks a holistic understanding of past societies through the study of the artifacts that past society left behind: the artifacts are an important tool, but not the goal.

Having said this, I will summarize some of the sorts of artifacts commonly found in Manteņo deposits; in particular, I summarize the excavations, by Currie, of a site occupied at least partially during Manteņo times, Lopez Viejo, situated just a few kilometers from the suspected center of the Manteņo chiefdom at Agua Blanca. Lopez Viejo is just north of Salango, which houses the Museo Salango.

In short, Currie's excavations focused on what appears to be a midden, or rubbish-pile, which at one time built up just outside a large stone structure; this structure may have housed a guild of Manteņo craftspeople, or several such guilds; these organizations of craftworkers specialized in certain activities -- such as shell-ornament production, ceramic production, and so on -- as part of the overall viallage and cheifdom economy, which was ultimately managed by the elite ranks of society.

Before going on to the summary to discuss what we can learn from the artifacts discovered at this midden site, let's have a look at the sorts of artifacts that were recovered. Remember, these are only a few of the artifact types recovered, and here I am just introducing a much more detailed study. In the illustrations that follow, please keep in mind taht I have sketched these artifacts rather than illustrated them professionally, and that I am here only trying to convey a general impression. All sketches are after plates in Currie (1995).

Shell Artifacts

Shell was an important resource for the ancient Manteņo. The people of Lopez Viejo used well over a hundred species of shell for food and the production of artifacts; primarily, beads and other ornaments. Shells were also used as tools. By identifying what shell species were used for certain purposes, we can begin to understand such things as their relative value. As I will mention below, the presence of shell artifacts in many stages of manufacture has important implications for the archaeology of Lopez Viejo.

In addition to the wide variety of species recovered, wide variety of shell artifact types were found in the midden. Pointed tools, made from the spiraling interior of Strombus (conch) shells are among the utilitarian items whose precise function has not yet been determined, although they bear wear-marks indicating heavy use on their pointed ends. Some examples are seen below:

2/3 life size.

In addition to shell tools, a variety of ornaments were found; importantly, these are found in in various stages of manufacture. The following illustration depicts three such artifacts. These are unfinished shell artifacts which have yet to be shaped to a final state; these are commonly referred to as 'preforms'.

1/2 life size.

While the artifacts above have not yet been perforated, the items below have, although their outline has not been completely smoothed:

1/2 life size.

In addition to these 'pre-form' discs, some shell artifacts closer to completion are also found. For example, the semi-circular discs below, made from the 'Panamic pearl oyster' shell, Pinctada mazatlanica:

1/2 life size.

Some of the most common artifacts at the site are finished beads made from the Spondylus shell. These are normally red or white. Most are between 2 and 5mm in diameter and only 1-2mm thick, a tiny size requiring a lot of skill and time to produce and thereby suggesting specialized shell-workers at Lopez Viejo. About 75% of the discovered beads are perforated, but, as we saw above, about 25% are blanks, without perforations. There are many beads apparently ruined during finishing. The following illustration show some typical beads made of Spondylus:

2x life size.

A final form of shell bead is found at Lopez Viejo: the 'fish head' bead named for its resemblance to a fish:

2x life size.

These beads are generally very small and delicately made. Most are made of the shell species Oliva undatella. These shells are roughly cylindrical and very colourful, often creamy white, pinkish red and cream-striped.

In addition to discs and beads, a wide variety of small shell decorative artifacts was recovered, including these geometric ornaments:

2x life size.

Other shapes of shell ornaments, some perforated, were found in the usual range of manufacture states:

1.5x life size.

On the far left is an oyster shell tablet or plaque which has not yet been perforated; to its right is a plaque that is finished or close to finished. On the top right is a triangular item which has been notched once, and below it, a completed triangular item.

Zoomorphic shell ornaments (representing some form of animal life) were also recovered. Again, these are made of the pearl oyster shell, as well as that of Spondylus, the large and exotic shell which was so highly valued by various peoples of South America that the shell was placed into the graves of the elite members of society.

Roughly life size.

Above we see four zoomorphic figures, possibly representing water fowl and/or seals. In the lower right of the arrangement is a notched and perforated oyster shell artifact.

Clearly, the presence of large quantities of shell artifacts in all stages of manufacture -- from preform to finished item -- strongly suggest that shell production took place at Lopez Viejo. Also found at the site are a large quantity of stone drill bits (see below) which were used in the production of these shell ornaments.

Ceramic Arifacts

The Lopez Viejo site also yielded a number of ceramic artifacts, including perforated discs, close to 70 figurines, many fragments of vessels (containers) and other items. In general the style of most ceramics from Lopez Viejo has been attibuted a transitional period between the 'Late Guangala' (300 BC - 800 AD) and the early Manteņo periods. Though such attributions in archaeology are rather vague, less vague of course is the fact that the figurines were found at Lopez Viejo, that they are not radically different from one another (show some group similarities) and that they very likely represent artifacts produced in the Manteņo area, rather than being imports.

Below, we see a representation of a what is thought to be a vampire bat:

Roughly life size.

Like most Lopez Viejo figurines, this item is a simple composition of baked clay with no slip (a thin coating of clay which makes ceramics appear more smooth and 'finished') or painting. This fragment, possibly meant to be attached to a ceramic vessel (in which case it would be considered an 'adorno' rather than an independent figurine) is made of a dark clay fired to a high degree.

Another figurine from the Lopez Viejo site is this representation of what is thought to be human head:

Roughly life size.

This head is actually quite different from many other Lopez Viejo figurines; the hair incisions, hooked nose and 'coffee-bean' eyes are considered to be quite clearly pre-Manteņo stylistic features; this figurine may date to the Late Engeroy, (c. 1,200-300BC) or Guangala (300BC-800AD) phases. Here, then, we see an ancient artifact, perhaps 2,200 years old. Such an old artifact may indicate an early occupation at the site, and indeed, it was excavated deep within the midden, suggesting that it is quite old. Another possibility is that it was an heirloom passed down through generations -- this is a common way in which very ancient artifacts come to be found in deposits much later than when they were produced (consider modern North American families 'passing down' family heirlooms such as old watches, silverware and the like). Further excavation and independent dating of the early strata from Lopez Viejo may help to identify the status of this artifact.

Another fascinating figuine is this 'ocarina', or clay whistle:

Roughly life size.

My crude sketch of this artifact does not do justice to the workmanship. Here we see what appears to be a seated individual with an elongated head-dress, perhaps also indicating an elongated head (babies' heads were compressed by boards to grow into an elongated shape). The artifact is made of a fine dark clay, and is finely polished. Being hollow, and perforated with a number of holes, it is likely a whistle. Currie (1995:26) considers this artifact, on stylistic grounds, to be almost certainly of the Manteņo period (800-1532AD).

Less exotic, but more common in Manteņo life, were the ceramic spindle whorls seen below (below the spindle whorls is a bone whistle):

Whorls and whistle slightly smaller than life size.

Spindle whorls were important and common tools used in the production of cloth; the whorl is basically a weight which steadies the spindle and allows the production of thread. This picture shows the principle, although at Lopez Viejo we find only the ceramic weight (whorl). Fifteen whorls were found in the midden. Most are black and incised with geometric designs. It is likely that, as in many South American cultures, the use of spindle whorls to produce thread was women's work.

The bone whistle below the whorls is typical of the long tradition of bone and ceramic flutes in Ecuador.

Other ceramic artifacts include seals (for stamping designs into pottery and other materials): One example is seen below:

Slightly smaller than life size.

This stamping seal would have been held by the handle (vertical in this illustration). An example of the stamp pattern is seen on the right. Perforated clay discs of an unknown function -- possibly gaming pieces or very small net weights -- were also common:

Slightly larger than life size.

These discs appear in roughly the same dimensions as shell beads, often being around 2cm in diameter and only 3mm or so in thickness. Some are larger examples exist as well, crudely shaped items about 5cm in diameter and about 7mm thick. Some are plain, others bear markings; some have been cut in two. Specialist analysis and a thorough review of the historic documents may help to solve the question of the function of these ceramic discs. Grooved, tubular ceramic beads were also found (to the right of the beads in this illustration is a polished stone weight):

Beads: roughly life size; stone weight, slightly larger than life size).

These beads are mostly black although some are red, brown or grey. Most of these items have five or six segments, although some have as many as ten. They appear to be of a decorative purpose, possibly for necklaces. The small size of the polished stone weight was probably used in the measurement of precious materials, such as gold. Note that Pizarro's secretary indicated the presence of such weights on the balsa raft encountered in 1525.

Eighteen ceramic spoons were also recovered from the midden; the following is one typical example:

Roughly 1/2 life size.

Whether these spoons were common implements or special ware for feasts is an interesting -- and unanswered -- question. Some theorists suggest that chiefdoms such as the Manteņo emerge as a result of 'self-aggrandizing' individuals who throw feasts, give away gifts, make all manner of political maneuvers and generally draw attnetion and social debt to themselves as a means of gaining power over others. In this theory, feasting is an important element of such power-building, with a self-aggrandizer's status and power increasing as he throws more and more elaborate feasts. Such feasts often are accompanied by the use of feasting artifacts, such as large cooking vessels (for large groups of people rather than nuclear families), and elaborate utensils...could the ceramic spoons of Lopez Viejo reflect feasting as means of the elite generating power? Further research, as always, is needed.

Copper Artifacts

In addition to the ceramic and shell artifacts, copper items of a wide variety were found, including copper pins, fishooks, bells, tweezers, rings and miscellaneous fragments of copper wire.

Typical copper bells, as mentioned in the Pizarro document, are seen below:

Life size.

Only four copper bells were found, at least superficially suggesting their high value. Other reasons, however, may have prevented such items from being discarded in this midden.

Copper fishooks are also found, but also in small numbers (only five were found in the entire site):

Life size.

The copper artifacts at Lopez Viejo are sometimes well-preserved, but sometimes corroded and poorly preserved: this may explain, in part, their rarity, which may also be explained by their relatively high value.

Stone and Bone Artifacts

As in many traditional technologies, stone and bone items are common, mainly because stone and bone can be easily shaped to produce durable and very useful tools.

Among the most important stone tools found at the site are 221 stone drill bits, three of which are seen below:

Life size.

These artifacts strongly suggest specialized manufacture at the site, with the shell ornaments the most likely results. Microscopic analysis of the drill bits can reveal their precise function. Note the small size of these drill bits: this indicates (a) fine workmanship, probably of a stone-tool making special craftsperson and (b) the bits are so small that they could not have been hand-held in use, and must have been hafted into some sort of drill.

Most of the stone tools are made of chert, a fine-grained rock with generally very good qualities for flaking into a tool. Some obsidian (volcanic glass) stone was also found, shaped into scraping tools and sharp blades. While the chert raw material used in the production of drill bits was locally available, the obsidian was likely traded in from the mountains to the East; but from where, and how valuable the obsidian was, we cannot know without further study. Bone artifacts are common, mostly beads, shaped and polished cylindrical or tubular segments of bone. Most of these were probably bird humerus bone (the humerus is the upper arm, from elbow to shoulderr).

Bone points are were also found:

Life size.

Some of these points would have had an eye, for sewing while others have a spatulate end of unknown function. In fact, the functions of many of the bone tool types from Lopez Viejo have not been identified. Replication experiments and the use of bone technology on the Manteņo in 1998 may help us to understand the use of these artifacts.

Summary of Archaeology at Lopez Viejo

We have seen that a wide variety of activities is represented by the artifacts at Lopez Viejo: shell ornament manufacture was clearly an important activity, as evidenced by the shell preforms and finished items as well as the large number of tools used in their production. Lopez Viejo people collected raw materials for their tools and subsistence locally (such as chert for drill bits and some shell species for food and ornamentation), but trade is also indicated by the presence of obsidian (not locally available) and the very volume of shell beads at the site, which appears to indicate stockpiling for trade purposes. Historic documents indicate that shell beads would have been traded in standard quantities, strung together to form chaquira, which were highly valuable. In this way, the people of Lopez Viejo were minting their own money. That Lopez Viejo people were mass-producing ornaments from the symbolically-important spondylus (Mother-of-Pearl) also suggests their affluence, or potential for affluence. For at least 5,000 years, Mother-of-Pearl has been an important trade item on the West Coast of South America, and for the people of Lopez Viejo the trade in this commodity would have been a tradition. We must also recognize that trade in pearl oyster shell (e.g. Pinctada mazatlanica) would also have been very economically important. Finally, spindle-whorls indicate the production of textiles, corroborated by reports in historic documents.

The ornaments of Lopez Viejo were probably traded away mainly as jewelry: head-dress ornaments, necklaces, nose-rings, collars and so on. How much of this trade was focused on supplying distant elites (as opposed to distant common people) has not yet been identified, but it is an important question. To a degree we may be limited by the nature of the excavted site: a midden or garbage dump for a production guild cannot be expected to yield many exotic or high-status items. Still, the midden does give us a good portrait of the sort of daily production that occurred at Lopez Viejo.

One interesting element of material culture was not evidenced in these excavations; copper 'axe monies' (moneda hacha), I- and T-shaped copper ingots argued by some investigators to have been used as a standard of exchange in long-distance trade. The copper bells, pins, fishooks and needles found at Lopez Viejo are typical of those of the Northern Andes in general, and such items were traded at least as far Western Central America.

This summary clearly focuses on trade economy and production, but many other aspects of Manteņo life remain difficult to investigate without further excavation. While no excavation is planned at present, we will be engaged in experimental archaeology, in which we attempt to replicate traditional life in order to learn from our experiences. Putting together a valid experimental archaeology programme which can be implemented in this voyage is one of my tasks. With the voyage documented on film, in log books and in specific observations, our understanding of the ancient Manteņo way of life, particularly sea-faring life, can only be richly increased.

This report compiled from Currie, E. 1995, Prehistory of the Southern Manabi Coast, Ecuador.
British Archaeological Reports#618, Oxford.

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